BUDDHISM IN A NUTSHELL

by

Narada Mahathera

Copyright 1982, 1995 Buddhist Publication Society

* * *

DharmaNet Edition 1995

Transcription: Bradford Griffith

Proofreading & Formatting: John Bullitt

This electronic edition is offered for free distribution

via DharmaNet by arrangement with the publisher.

DharmaNet International

P.O. Box 4951, Berkeley CA 94704-4951

* * * * * * * *

PREFACE

//Buddhism in a Nutshell// first appeared in 1933. Since then several

editions were published by various philanthropic gentlemen for free

distribution.

For a fuller exposition of the subjects dealt with here, readers are

kindly requested to read the revised and enlarged edition of //The

Buddha and His Teachings// published in 1980.

Permission may freely be obtained to reprint or to translate this

book.

NARADA

Vajirarama

Colombo, Sri Lanka.

7th May 1982.

* * * * * * * *

BUDDHISM IN A NUTSHELL

//Namo Tassa Bhagavato Arahato Samma-Sambuddhassa//

Chapter I

THE BUDDHA

On the fullmoon day of May, in the year 623 B.C., there was born in

the district of Nepal an Indian Sakya Prince named Siddhattha Gotama,

who was destined to be the greatest religious teacher in the world.

Brought up in the lap of luxury, receiving an education befitting a

prince, he married and had a son.

His contemplative nature and boundless compassion did not permit him

to enjoy the fleeting material pleasures of a Royal household. He

knew no woe, but he felt a deep pity for sorrowing humanity. Amidst

comfort and prosperity, he realized the universality of sorrow. The

palace, with all its worldly amusements, was no longer a congenial

place for the compassionate prince. The time was ripe for him to

depart. Realizing the vanity of sensual enjoyments, in his

twenty-ninth year, he renounced all worldly pleasures and donning the

simple yellow garb of an ascetic, alone, penniless, wandered forth in

search of Truth and Peace.

It was an unprecedented historic renunciation; for he renounced not in

his old age but in the prime of manhood, not in poverty but in plenty.

As it was the belief in the ancient days that no deliverance could be

gained unless one leads a life of strict asceticism, he strenuously

practiced all forms of severe austerities. "Adding vigil after vigil,

and penance after penance," he made a superhuman effort for six long

years.

His body was reduced to almost a skeleton. The more he tormented his

body, the farther his goal receded from him. The painful,

unsuccessful austerities which he strenuously practiced proved

absolutely futile. He was now fully convinced, through personal

experience, of the utter futility of self-mortification which weakened

his body and resulted in lassitude of spirit.

Benefiting by this invaluable experience of his, he finally decided

to follow an independent course, avoiding the two extremes of

self-indulgence and self-mortification. The former retards one's

spiritual progress, and the latter weakens one's intellect. The new

way which he himself discovered was the Middle Path, //Majjhima

Patipada//, which subsequently became one of the salient

characteristics of his teaching.

One happy morning, while He was deeply absorbed in meditation, unaided

and unguided by any supernatural power and solely relying on His

efforts and wisdom, He eradicated all defilements, purified Himself,

and, realizing things as they truly are, attained Enlightenment

(Buddhahood) at the age of 35. He was not born a Buddha, [*] but He

became a Buddha by His own striving. As the perfect embodiment of all

the virtues He preached, endowed with deep wisdom commensurate with

His boundless compassion. He devoted the remainder of His precious

life to serve humanity both by example and precept, dominated by no

personal motive whatever.

* [An Awakened or Enlightened One.]

After a very successful ministry of 45 long years the Buddha, as every

other human being, succumbed to the inexorable law of change, and

finally passed away in His 80th year, exhorting His disciples to

regard His doctrine as their teacher.

The Buddha was a human being. As a man He was born, as a man He

lived, and as a man His life came to an end. Though a human being, He

became an extraordinary man (//Acchariya Manussa//), but He never

arrogated to Himself divinity. The Buddha laid stress on this

important point and left no room whatever for anyone to fall into the

error of thinking that He was an immortal divine being. Fortunately

there is no deification in the case of the Buddha. It should,

however, be remarked that there was no Teacher, "ever so godless as

the Buddha, yet none so god-like."

The Buddha is neither an incarnation of the Hindu God Vishnu, as is

believed by some, nor is He a savior who freely saves others by His

personal salvation. The Buddha exhorts His disciples to depend on

themselves for their deliverance, for both purity and defilement

depend on oneself. Clarifying His relationship with His followers and

emphasizing the importance of self-reliance and individual striving,

the Buddha plainly states: "You should exert yourselves, the

Tathagatas [*] are only teachers."

* [Lit., Thus who hath come.]

The Buddhas point out the path, and it is left for us to follow that

path to obtain our purification.

"To depend on others for salvation is negative, but to depend on

oneself is positive." Dependence on others means a surrender of one's

effort.

In exhorting His disciples to be self-dependent the Buddha says in the

//Parinibbana Sutta//: "Be ye islands unto yourselves, be ye a refuge

unto yourselves, seek not for refuge in others." These significant

words are self-elevating. They reveal how vital is self-exertion to

accomplish one's object and, how superficial and futile it is to seek

redemption through benignant saviors and to crave for illusory

happiness in an after life through the propitiation of imaginary Gods

or by irresponsive prayers and meaningless sacrifices.

Furthermore, the Buddha does not claim the monopoly of Buddhahood

which, as a matter of fact, is not the prerogative of any specially

graced person. He reached the highest possible state of perfection

any person could aspire to, and without the close-fist of a teacher he

revealed the only straight path that leads thereto. According to the

Teaching of the Buddha anybody may aspire to that supreme state of

perfection if he makes the necessary exertion. The Buddha does not

condemn men by calling they wretched sinners, but, on the contrary, He

gladdens them by saying that they are pure in heart at conception. In

His opinion the world is not wicked but is deluded by ignorance.

Instead of disheartening His followers and reserving that exalted

state only to Himself, He encourages and induces them to emulate Him,

for Buddhahood is latent in all. In one sense all are potential

Buddhas.

One who aspires to become a Buddha is called a Bodhisatta, which,

literally, means a wisdom-being. This Bodhisatta ideal is the most

beautiful and the most refined course of life that has ever been

presented to this ego-centric world, for what is nobler than a life of

service and purity?

As a Man He attained Buddhahood and proclaimed to the world the latent

inconceivable possibilities and the creative power of man. Instead of

placing an unseen Almighty God over man who arbitrarily controls the

destinies of mankind, and making him subservient to a supreme power,

He raised the worth of mankind. It was He who taught that man can

gain his deliverance and purification by his own exertion without

depending on an external God or mediating priests. It was he who

taught the ego-centric world the noble ideal of selfless service. It

was He who revolted against the degrading caste system and taught

equality of mankind and gave equal opportunities for all to

distinguish themselves in every walk of life.

He declared that the gates of success and prosperity were open to all

in every condition of life, high or low, saint or criminal, who would

care to turn a new leaf and aspire to perfection.

Irrespective of caste, color or rank He established for both

deserving men and women a democratically constituted celibate Order.

He did not force His followers to be slaves either to His Teachings or

to Himself but granted complete freedom of thought.

He comforted the bereaved by His consoling words. He ministered to

the sick that were deserted. He helped the poor that were neglected.

He ennobled the lives of the deluded, purified the corrupted lives of

criminals. He encouraged the feeble, united the divided, enlightened

the ignorant, clarified the mystic, guided the benighted, elevated the

base, dignified the noble. Both rich and poor, saints and criminals

loved Him alike. Despotic and righteous kings, famous and obscure

princes and nobles, generous and stingy millionaires, haughty and

humble scholars, destitute paupers, down-trodden scavengers, wicked

murderers, despised courtesans -- all benefited by His words of wisdom

and compassion.

His noble example was a source of inspiration to all. His serene and

peaceful countenance was a soothing sight to the pious eyes. His

message of Peace and Tolerance was welcomed by all with indescribable

joy and was of eternal benefit to every one who had the fortune to

hear and practice it.

Wherever His teachings penetrated it left an indelible impression upon

the character of the respective peoples. The cultural advancement of

all the Buddhist nations was mainly due to His sublime Teachings. In

fact all Buddhist countries like Ceylon, Burma, Thailand, Cambodia,

Vietnam, Laos, Nepal, Tibet, China, Mongolia, Korea, Japan, etc., grew

up in the cradle of Buddhism. Though more than 2500 years have

elapsed since the passing away of this greatest Teacher, yet his

unique personality exerts a great influence on all who come to know

Him.

His iron will, profound wisdom, universal love, boundless compassion,

selfless service, historic renunciation, perfect purity, magnetic

personality, exemplary methods employed to propagate the Teachings,

and his final success -- all these factors have compelled about

one-fifth of the population of the world today to hail the Buddha as

their supreme Teacher.

Paying a glowing tribute to the Buddha Sri Radhakrishnan states: "In

Gautama the Buddha we have a master-mind from the East second to none

so far as the influence on the thought and life of the human race is

concerned, and, sacred to all as the founder of a religious tradition

whose hold is hardly less wide and deep than any other. He belongs to

the history of the world's thought, to the general inheritance of all

cultivated men, for, judged by intellectual integrity, moral

earnestness, and spiritual insight, He is undoubtedly one of the

greatest figures in history.

In //The Three Greatest Men in History// H.G. Wells writes: "In the

Buddha you see clearly a man, simple, devout, lonely, battling for

light -- a vivid human personality, not a myth. He too gave a message

to mankind universal in character. Many of our best modern ideas are

in closest harmony with it. All the miseries and discontents are due,

he taught, to selfishness. Before a man can become serene he must

cease to live for his senses or himself. Then he merges into a great

being. Buddha in different language called men to self-forgetfulness

500 years before Christ. In some ways he is nearer to us and our

needs. He was more lucid upon our individual importance and service

than Christ and less ambiguous upon the question of personal

immortality."

St. Hilaire remarks "The perfect model of all the virtues He preaches.

His life has not a stain upon it."

Fausboll says -- "The more I know of Him, the more I love Him."

A humble follower of his would say -- "The more I know Him, the more I

love Him; the more I love Him, the more I know Him."

* * *

Chapter II

THE DHAMMA: Is it a Philosophy?

The non-aggressive, moral and philosophical system expounded by the

Buddha, which demands no blind faith from its adherents, expounds no

dogmatic creeds, encourages no superstitious rites and ceremonies, but

advocates a golden mean that guides a disciple through pure living and

pure thinking to the gain of supreme wisdom and deliverance from all

evil, is called the Dhamma and is popularly known as Buddhism.

The all-merciful Buddha has passed away, but the sublime Dhamma which

He unreservedly bequeathed to humanity, still exists in its pristine

purity.

Although the Master has left no written records of His Teachings, His

distinguished disciples preserved them by committing to memory and

transmitting them orally from generation to generation.

Immediately after His demise 500 chief Arahats [*] versed in the

Dhamma [**] and Vinaya, [***] held a convocation to rehearse the

Doctrine as was originally taught by the Buddha. Venerable Ananda

Thera, who enjoyed the special privilege of hearing all the

discourses, recited the Dhamma, while the Venerable Upali recited the

Vinaya.

* [Literally, the Worthy Ones. They are the enlightened disciples who

have destroyed all passions.]

** [The Teaching.]

*** [The Discipline.]

The //Tipitaka// was compiled and arranged in its present form by

those Arahats of old.

During the reign of the pious Sinhala King Vattagamani Abhaya, about

83 B.C., the Tipitaka was, for the first time in the history of

Buddhism, committed to writing on palm leaves (ola) in Ceylon.

This voluminous //Tipitaka//, which contains the essence of the

Buddha's Teaching, is estimated to be about eleven times the size of

the Bible. A striking contrast between the Tipitaka and the Bible is

that the former is not a gradual development like the latter.

As the word itself implies, the //Tipitaka// consists of three

baskets. They are the Basket of Discipline (//Vinaya Pitaka//), the

Basket of Discourses (//Sutta Pitaka//), and the Basket of Ultimate

Doctrine (//Abhidhamma Pitaka//).

The //Vinaya Pitaka// which is regarded as the sheet anchor to the

oldest historic celibate order -- the Sangha -- mainly deals with

rules and regulations which the Buddha promulgated, as occasion arose,

for the future discipline of the Order of monks (//Bhikkhus//) and

nuns (//Bhikkunis//). It described in detail the gradual development

of the //Sasana// (Dispensation). An account of the life and ministry

of the Buddha is also given. Indirectly it reveals some important and

interesting information about ancient history, Indian customs, arts,

science, etc.

The Vinaya Pitaka consists of the five following books:

(Vibhanga):

1. //Parajika// Pali -- Major Offenses

2. //Pacittiya// Pali -- Minor Offenses

(Khandaka):

3. //Mahavagga// Pali -- Greater Section

4. //Cullavagga// Pali -- Shorter Section

5. //Parivara// Pali -- Epitome of the Vinaya

The //Sutta Pitaka// consists chiefly of discourses, delivered by the

Buddha himself on various occasions. There are also a few discourses

delivered by some of His distinguished disciples such as the Venerable

Sariputta, Ananda, Moggallana, etc., included in it. It is like a

book of prescriptions, as the sermons embodied therein were expounded

to suit the different occasions and the temperaments of various

persons. There may be seemingly contradictory statements, but they

should not be misconstrued as they were opportunely uttered by the

Buddha to suit a particular purpose: for instance, to the self-same

question He would maintain silence (when the inquirer is merely

foolishly inquisitive), or give a detailed reply when He knew the

inquirer to be an earnest seeker. Most of the sermons were intended

mainly for the benefit of Bhikkhus and they deal with the Holy life

and with the expositions of the doctrine. There are also several

other discourses which deal with both the material and moral progress

of His lay followers.

This Pitaka is divided into five Nikayas or collections, viz:

1. //Digha Nikaya// (Collection of Long Discourses).

2. //Majjhima Nikaya// (Collection of Middle-Length Discourses).

3. //Samyutta Nikaya// (Collection of Kindred Sayings).

4. //Anguttara Nikaya// (Collection of Discourses arranged in

accordance with numbers).

5. //Khuddaka Nikaya// (Smaller Collection).

The fifth is subdivided into fifteen books:

1. //Khuddaka Patha// (Shorter texts)

2. //Dhammapada// (Way of Truth)

3. //Udana// (Paeans of Joy)

4. //Iti Vuttaka// ("Thus said" Discourses)

5. //Sutta Nipata// (Collected Discourses)

6. //Vimana Vatthu// (Stories of Celestial Mansions)

7. //Peta Vatthu// (Stories of Petas)

8. //Theragatha// (Psalms of the Brethren)

9. //Therigatha// (Psalms of the Sisters)

10. //Jataka// (Birth Stories)

11. //Niddesa// (Expositions)

12. //Patisambhida Magga// (Analytical Knowledge)

13. //Apadana// (Lives of Arahats)

14. //Buddhavamsa// (The History of the Buddha)

15. //Cariya Pitaka// (Modes of Conduct)

The //Abhidhamma Pitaka// is the most important and the most

interesting of the three, containing as it does the profound

philosophy of the Buddha's Teaching in contrast to the illuminating

and simpler discourses in the Sutta Pitaka.

In the //Sutta Pitaka// is found the conventional teaching (//vohara

desana//) while in the //Abhidhamma Pitaka// is found the ultimate

teaching (//paramattha-desana//).

To the wise, Abhidhamma is an indispensable guide; to the spiritually

evolved, an intellectual treat; and to research scholars, food for

thought. Consciousness is defined. Thoughts are analyzed and

classified chiefly from an ethical standpoint. Mental states are

enumerated. The composition of each type of consciousness is set

forth in detail. How thoughts arise, is minutely described.

Irrelevant problems that interest mankind but having no relation to

one's purification, are deliberately set aside.

Matter is summarily discussed; fundamental units of matter, properties

of matter, sources of matter, relationship between mind and matter,

are explained.

The Abhidhamma investigates mind and matter, the two composite factors

of the so-called being, to help the understanding of things as they

truly are, and a philosophy has been developed on those lines. Based

on that philosophy, an ethical system has been evolved, to realize the

ultimate goal, Nibbana.

The //Abhidhamma Pitaka// consists of seven books:

1. //Dhammasangani// (Classification of Dhammas)

2. //Vibhanga// (The book of Divisions)

3. //Katha-Vatthu// (Points of Controversy)

4. //Pubbala-Pannatti// (Descriptions of Individuals)

5. //Dhatu-Katha// (Discussion with reference to elements)

6. //Yamaka// (The Book of Pairs),

7. //Patthana// (The Book of Relations)

In the Tipitaka one finds milk for the babe and meat for the strong,

for the Buddha taught His doctrine both to the masses and to the

intelligentsia. The sublime Dhamma enshrined in these sacred texts,

deals with truths and facts, and is not concerned with theories and

philosophies which may be accepted as profound truths today only to be

thrown overboard tomorrow. The Buddha has presented us with no new

astounding philosophical theories, nor did He venture to create any

new material science. He explained to us what is within and without

so far as it concerns our emancipation, as ultimately expounded a path

of deliverance, which is unique. Incidentally, He has, however,

forestalled many a modern scientist and philosopher.

Schopenhauer in his "World as Will and Idea" has presented the truth

of suffering and its cause in a Western garb. Spinoza, though he

denies not the existence of a permanent reality, asserts that all

phenomenal existence is transitory. In his opinion sorrow is

conquered "by finding an object of knowledge which is not transient,

not ephemeral, but is immutable, permanent, everlasting." Berkeley

proved that the so-called indivisible atom is a metaphysical fiction.

Hume, after a relentless analysis of the mind, concluded that

consciousness consists of fleeting mental states. Bergson advocates

the doctrine of change. Prof. James refers to a stream of

consciousness.

The Buddha expounded these doctrines of Transiency, (//Anicca//),

Sorrow (//Dukkha//), and No-Soul (//Anatta//) some 2500 years ago

while He was sojourning in the valley of the Ganges.

It should be understood that the Buddha did not preach all that He

knew. On one occasion while the Buddha was passing through a forest

He took a handful of leaves and said: "O Bhikkhus, what I have taught

is comparable to the leaves in my hand. What I have not taught is

comparable to the amount of leaves in the forest."

He taught what He deemed was absolutely essential for one's

purification making no distinction between an esoteric and exoteric

doctrine. He was characteristically silent on questions irrelevant to

His noble mission.

Buddhism no doubt accords with science, but both should be treated as

parallel teachings, since one deals mainly with material truths while

the other confines itself to moral and spiritual truths. The subject

matter of each is different.

The Dhamma He taught is not merely to be preserved in books, nor is it

a subject to be studied from an historical or literary standpoint. On

the contrary it is to be learnt and put into practice in the course of

one's daily life, for without practice one cannot appreciate the

truth. The Dhamma is to be studied, and more to be practiced, and

above all to be realized; immediate realization is its ultimate goal.

As such the Dhamma is compared to a raft which is meant for the sole

purpose of escaping from the ocean of birth and death (//Samsara//).

Buddhism, therefore, cannot strictly be called a mere philosophy

because it is not merely the "love of, inducing the search after,

wisdom." Buddhism may approximate a philosophy, but it is very much

more comprehensive.

Philosophy deals mainly with knowledge and is not concerned with

practice; whereas Buddhism lays special emphasis on practice and

realization.

* * *

Chapter III

IS IT A RELIGION?

It is neither a religion in the sense in which that word is commonly

understood, for it is not "a system of faith and worship owing any

allegiance to a supernatural being."

Buddhism does not demand blind faith from its adherents. Here mere

belief is dethroned and is substituted by confidence based on

knowledge, which, in Pali, is known as //Saddha//. The confidence

placed by a follower on the Buddha is like that of a sick person in a

noted physician, or a student in his teacher. A Buddhist seeks refuge

in the Buddha because it was He who discovered the Path of

Deliverance.

A Buddhist does not seek refuge in the Buddha with the hope that he

will be saved by His personal purification. The Buddha gives no such

guarantee. It is not within the power of a Buddha to wash away the

impurities of others. One could neither purify nor defile another.

The Buddha, as Teacher, instructs us, but we ourselves are directly

responsible for our purification.

Although a Buddhist seeks refuge in the Buddha, he does not make any

self-surrender. Nor does a Buddhist sacrifice his freedom of thought

by becoming a follower of the Buddha. He can exercise his own free

will and develop his knowledge even to the extent of becoming a Buddha

himself.

The starting point of Buddhism is reasoning or understanding, or, in

other words, //Samma-ditthi//.

To the seekers of truth the Buddha says:

"Do not accept anything on (mere) hearsay -- (i.e., thinking

that thus have we heard it from a long time). Do not accept

anything by mere tradition -- (i.e., thinking that it has thus

been handed down through many generations). Do not accept

anything on account of mere rumors -- (i.e., by believing what

others say without any investigation). Do not accept anything

just because it accords with your scriptures. Do not accept

anything by mere suppositions. Do not accept anything by mere

inference. Do not accept anything by merely considering the

reasons. Do not accept anything merely because it agrees with

your pre-conceived notions. Do not accept anything merely

because it seems acceptable -- (i.e., thinking that as the

speaker seems to be a good person his words should be accepted).

Do not accept anything thinking that the ascetic is respected by

us (therefore it is right to accept his word).

"But when you know for yourselves -- these things are immoral,

these things are blameworthy, these things are censured by the

wise, these things, when performed and undertaken conduce to

ruin and sorrow -- then indeed do you reject them.

"When you know for yourselves -- these things are moral, these

things are blameless, these things are praised by the wise,

these things, when performed and undertaken, conduce to

well-being and happiness -- then do you live acting

accordingly."

These inspiring words of the Buddha still retain their original force

and freshness.

Though there is no blind faith, one might argue whether there is no

worshiping of images etc., in Buddhism.

Buddhists do not worship an image expecting worldly or spiritual

favors, but pay their reverence to what it represents.

An understanding Buddhist, in offering flowers and incense to an

image, designedly makes himself feel that he is in the presence of the

living Buddha and thereby gains inspiration from His noble personality

and breathes deep His boundless compassion. He tries to follow His

noble example.

The Bo-tree is also a symbol of Enlightenment. These external objects

of reverence are not absolutely necessary, but they are useful as they

tend to concentrate one's attention. An intellectual person could

dispense with them as he could easily focus his attention and

visualize the Buddha.

For our own good, and out of gratitude, we pay such external respect

but what the Buddha expects from His disciple is not so much obeisance

as the actual observance of His Teachings. The Buddha says -- "He

honors me best who practices my teaching best." "He who sees the

Dhamma sees me."

With regard to images, however, Count Kevserling remarks -- "I see

nothing more grand in this world than the image of the Buddha. It is

an absolutely perfect embodiment of spirituality in the visible

domain."

Furthermore, it must be mentioned that there are not petitional or

intercessory prayers in Buddhism. However much we may pray to the

Buddha we cannot be saved. The Buddha does not grant favors to those

who pray to Him. Instead of petitional prayers there is meditation

that leads to self-control, purification and enlightenment. Meditation

is neither a silent reverie nor keeping the mind blank. It is an

active striving. It serves as a tonic both to the heart and the mind.

The Buddha not only speaks of the futility of offering prayers but

also disparages a slave mentality. A Buddhist should not pray to be

saved, but should rely on himself and win his freedom.

"Prayers take the character of private communications, selfish

bargaining with God. It seeks for objects of earthly ambitions

and inflames the sense of self. Meditation on the other hand is

self-change."

-- Sri Radhakrishnan.

In Buddhism there is not, as in most other religions, an Almighty God

to be obeyed and feared. The Buddha does not believe in a cosmic

potentate, omniscient and omnipresent. In Buddhism there are no

divine revelations or divine messengers. A Buddhist is, therefore, not

subservient to any higher supernatural power which controls his

destinies and which arbitrarily rewards and punishes. Since Buddhists

do not believe in revelations of a divine being Buddhism does not

claim the monopoly of truth and does not condemn any other religion.

But Buddhism recognizes the infinite latent possibilities of man and

teaches that man can gain deliverance from suffering by his own

efforts independent of divine help or mediating priests.

Buddhism cannot, therefore, strictly be called a religion because it

is neither a system of faith and worship, nor "the outward act or form

by which men indicate their recognition of the existence of a God or

gods having power over their own destiny to whom obedience, service,

and honor are due."

If, by religion, is meant "a teaching which takes a view of life that

is more than superficial, a teaching which looks into life and not

merely at it, a teaching which furnishes men with a guide to conduct

that is in accord with this its in-look, a teaching which enables

those who give it heed to face life with fortitude and death with

serenity," [*] or a system to get rid of the ills of life, then it is

certainly a religion of religions.

* [Bhikkhu Silacara]

* * *

Chapter IV

IS BUDDHISM AN ETHICAL SYSTEM?

It no doubt contains an excellent ethical code which is unparalleled

in its perfection and altruistic attitude. It deals with one way of

life for the monks and another for the laity. But Buddhism is much

more than an ordinary moral teaching. Morality is only the

preliminary stage on the Path of Purity, and is a means to an end, but

not an end in itself. Conduct, though essential, is itself

insufficient to gain one's emancipation. It should be coupled with

wisdom or knowledge (//panna//). The base of Buddhism is morality,

and wisdom is its apex.

In observing the principles of morality a Buddhist should not only

regard his own self but also should have a consideration for others we

well -- animals not excluded. Morality in Buddhism is not founded on

any doubtful revelation nor is it the ingenious invention of an

exceptional mind, but it is a rational and practical code based on

verifiable facts and individual experience.

It should be mentioned that any external supernatural agency plays no

part whatever in the moulding of the character of a Buddhist. In

Buddhism there is no one to reward or punish. Pain or happiness are

the inevitable results of one's actions. The question of incurring

the pleasure or displeasure of a God does not enter the mind of a

Buddhist. Neither hope of reward nor fear of punishment acts as an

incentive to him to do good or to refrain from evil. A Buddhist is

aware of future consequences, but he refrains from evil because it

retards, does good because it aids progress to Enlightenment (Bodhi).

There are also some who do good because it is good, refrain from evil

because it is bad.

To understand the exceptionally high standard of morality the Buddha

expects from His ideal followers, one must carefully read the

Dhammapada, Sigalovada Sutta, Vyaggapajja Sutta, Mangala Sutta,

Karaniya Sutta, Parabhava Sutta, Vasala Sutta, Dhammika Sutta, etc.

As a moral teaching it excels all other ethical systems, but morality

is only the beginning and not the end of Buddhism.

In one sense Buddhism is not a philosophy, in another sense it is the

philosophy of philosophies.

In one sense Buddhism is not a religion, in another sense it is the

religion of religions.

Buddhism is neither a metaphysical path nor a ritualistic path.

It is neither sceptical nor dogmatic.

It is neither self-mortification nor self-indulgence.

It is neither pessimism nor optimism.

It is neither eternalism nor nihilism.

It is neither absolutely this-worldly nor other-worldly.

It is a unique Path of Enlightenment.

The original Pali term for Buddhism is Dhamma, which, literally, means

that which upholds. There is no English equivalent that exactly

conveys the meaning of the Pali term.

The Dhamma is that which really is. It is the Doctrine of Reality. It

is a means of Deliverance from suffering, and Deliverance itself.

Whether the Buddhas arise or not the Dhamma exists. It lies hidden

from the ignorant eyes of men, till a Buddha, an Enlightened One,

realizes and compassionately reveals it to the world.

This Dhamma is not something apart from oneself, but is closely

associated with oneself. As such the Buddha exhorts:

"Abide with oneself as an island, with oneself as a Refuge.

Abide with the Dhamma as an island, with the Dhamma as a Refuge.

Seek no external refuge."

-- Parinibbana Sutta

* * *

Chapter V

SOME SALIENT FEATURES OF BUDDHISM

The foundations of Buddhism are the four Noble Truths -- namely,

Suffering (the //raison d'etre// of Buddhism), its cause (i.e.,

Craving), its end (i.e., Nibbana, the Summum Bonum of Buddhism), and

the Middle Way.

What is the Noble Truth of Suffering?

"Birth is suffering, old age is suffering, disease is suffering,

death is suffering, to be united with the unpleasant is

suffering, to be separated from the pleasant is suffering, not

to receive what one craves for is suffering, in brief the five

Aggregates of Attachment are suffering."

What is the Noble Truth of the Cause of Suffering?

"It is the craving which leads from rebirth to rebirth

accompanied by lust of passion, which delights now here now

there; it is the craving for sensual pleasures (//Kamatanha//),

for existence (//Bhavatanha//) [*] and for annihilation

(//Vibhavatanha//)." [**]

* [Craving associated with "Eternalism" (//Sassataditthi//) (Comy)]

** [Craving associated with "Nihilism" (//Ucchedaditthi//) (Comy)]

What is the Noble Truth of the Annihilation of Suffering?

"It is the remainderless, total annihilation of this very

craving, the forsaking of it, the breaking loose, fleeing,

deliverance from it."

What is the Noble Truth of the Path leading to the Annihilation of

Suffering?

"It is the Noble Eightfold Path which consists of right

understanding, right thoughts, right speech, right action, right

livelihood, right endeavor, right mindfulness, and right

concentration."

Whether the Buddhas arise or not these four Truths exist in the

universe. The Buddhas only reveal these Truths which lay hidden in

the dark abyss of time.

Scientifically interpreted, the Dhamma may be called the law of cause

and effect. These two embrace the entire body of the Buddha's

Teachings.

The first three represent the philosophy of Buddhism; the fourth

represents the ethics of Buddhism, based on that philosophy. All

these four truths are dependent on this body itself. The Buddha

states: "In this very one-fathom long body along with perceptions and

thoughts, do I proclaim the world, the origin of the world, the end of

the world and the path leading to the end of the world." Here the

term world is applied to suffering.

Buddhism rests on the pivot of sorrow. But it does not thereby follow

that Buddhism is pessimistic. It is neither totally pessimistic nor

totally optimistic, but, on the contrary, it teaches a truth that lies

midway between them. One would be justified in calling the Buddha a

pessimist if He had only enunciated the Truth of suffering without

suggesting a means to put an end to it. The Buddha perceived the

universality of sorrow and did prescribe a panacea for this universal

sickness of humanity. The highest conceivable happiness, according to

the Buddha, is Nibbana, which is the total extinction of suffering.

The author of the article on Pessimism in the Encyclopedia Britannica

writes: "Pessimism denotes an attitude of hopelessness towards life,

a vague general opinion that pain and evil predominate in human

affairs. The original doctrine of the Buddha is in fact as optimistic

as any optimism of the West. To call it pessimism is merely to apply

to it a characteristically Western principle to which happiness is

impossible without personality. The true Buddhist looks forward with

enthusiasm to absorption into eternal bliss."

Ordinarily the enjoyment of sensual pleasures is the highest and only

happiness of the average man. There is no doubt a kind of momentary

happiness in the anticipation, gratification and retrospection of such

fleeting material pleasures, but they are illusive and temporary.

According to the Buddha non-attachment is a greater bliss.

The Buddha does not expect His followers to be constantly pondering on

suffering and lead a miserable unhappy life. He exhorts them to be

always happy and cheerful, for zest (//Piti//) is one of the factors

of Enlightenment.

Real happiness is found within, and is not to be defined in terms of

wealth, children, honors or fame. If such possessions are

misdirected, forcibly or unjustly obtained, misappropriated or even

viewed with attachment, they will be a source of pain and sorrow to

the possessors.

Instead of trying to rationalize suffering, Buddhism takes suffering

for granted and seeks the cause to eradicate it. Suffering exists as

long as there is craving. It can only be annihilated by treading the

Noble Eightfold Path and attaining the supreme bliss of Nibbana.

These four Truths can be verified by experience. Hence the Buddha

Dhamma is not based on the fear of the unknown, but is founded on the

bedrock of facts which can be tested by ourselves and verified by

experience. Buddhism is, therefore rational and intensely practical.

Such a rational and practical system cannot contain mysteries or

esoteric doctrines. Blind faith, therefore, is foreign to Buddhism.

Where there is no blind faith there cannot be any coercion or

persecution or fanaticism. To the unique credit of Buddhism it must

be said that throughout its peaceful march of 2500 years no drop of

blood was shed in the name of the Buddha, no mighty monarch wielded

his powerful sword to propagate the Dhamma, and no conversion was made

either by force or by repulsive methods. Yet, the Buddha was the

first and the greatest missionary that lived on earth.

Aldous Huxley writes: "Alone of all the great world religions Buddhism

made its way without persecution censorship or inquisition."

Lord Russell remarks: "Of the great religions of history, I prefer

Buddhism, especially in its earliest forms; because it has had the

smallest element of persecution."

In the name of Buddhism no altar was reddened with the blood of a

Hypatia, no Bruno was burnt alive.

Buddhism appeals more to the intellect than to the emotion. It is

concerned more with the character of the devotees than with their

numerical strength.

On one occasion Upali, a follower of Nigantha Nataputta, approached

the Buddha and was so pleased with the Buddha's exposition of the

Dhamma that he instantly expressed his desire to become a follower of

the Buddha. But the Buddha cautioned him, saying:

"Of a verity, O householder, make a thorough investigation. It

is well for a distinguished man like you to make (first) a

thorough investigation."

Upali, who was overjoyed at this unexpected remark of the Buddha,

said:

"Lord, had I been a follower of another religion, its adherents

would have taken me round the streets in a procession

proclaiming that such and such a millionaire had renounced his

former faith and embraced theirs. But, Lord, Your Reverence

advises me to investigate further. The more pleased am I with

this remark of yours. For the second time, Lord, I seek refuge

in the Buddha, Dhamma and the Sangha."

Buddhism is saturated with this spirit of free enquiry and complete

tolerance. It is the teaching of the open mind and the sympathetic

heart, which, lighting and warming the whole universe with its twin

rays of wisdom and compassion, sheds its genial glow on every being

struggling in the ocean of birth and death.

The Buddha was so tolerant that He did not even exercise His power to

give commandments to His lay followers. Instead of using the

imperative, He said: "It behooves you to do this -- It behooves you

not to do this." He commands not but does exhort.

This tolerance the Buddha extended to men, women and all living

beings.

It was the Buddha who first attempted to abolish slavery and

vehemently protested against the degrading caste system which was

firmly rooted in the soil of India. In the Word of the Buddha it is

not by mere birth one becomes an outcast or a noble, but by one's

actions. Caste or colour does not preclude one from becoming a

Buddhist or from entering the Order. Fishermen, scavengers,

courtesans, together with warriors and Brahmins, were freely admitted

to the Order and enjoyed equal privileges and were also given

positions of rank. Upali, the barber, for instance, was made in

preference to all other the chief in matters pertaining to Vinaya

discipline. The timid Sunita, the scavenger, who attained Arhatship

was admitted by the Buddha Himself into the Order. Angulimala, the

robber and criminal, was converted to a compassionate saint. The

fierce Alavaka sought refuge in the Buddha and became a saint. The

courtesan Ambapali entered the Order and attained Arhatship. Such

instances could easily be multiplied from the Tipitaka to show that

the portals of Buddhism were wide open to all, irrespective of caste,

colour or rank.

It was also the Buddha who raised the status of downtrodden women and

not only brought them to a realization of their importance to society

but also founded the first celibate religious order for women with

rules and regulations.

The Buddha did not humiliate women, but only regarded them as feeble

by nature. He saw the innate good of both men and women and assigned

to them their due places in His teaching. Sex is no barrier to

attaining Sainthood.

Sometimes the Pali term used to denote women is //Matugama//, which

means "mother-folk" or "society of mothers." As a mother, woman holds

an honorable place in Buddhism. Even the wife is regarded as "best

friend" (//parama sakha//) of the husband.

Hasty critics are only making ex parte statements when they reproach

Buddhism with being inimical to women. Although at first the Buddha

refused to admit women into the Order on reasonable grounds, yet later

He yielded to the entreaties of His foster-mother, Pajapati Gotami,

and founded the Bhikkhuni Order. Just as the Arahats Sariputta and

Moggallana were made the two chief disciples in the Order of monks,

even so he appointed Arahats Khema and Uppalavanna as the two chief

female disciples. Many other female disciples too were named by the

Buddha Himself as His distinguished and pious followers.

On one occasion the Buddha said to King Kosala who was displeased on

hearing that a daughter was born to him:

"A woman child, O Lord of men; may prove

Even a better offspring than a male."

Many women, who otherwise would have fallen into oblivion,

distinguished themselves in various ways, and gained their

emancipation by following the Dhamma and entering the Order. In this

new Order, which later proved to be a great blessing to many women,

queens, princesses, daughters of noble families, widows, bereaved

mothers, destitute women, pitiable courtesans -- all, despite their

caste or rank, met on a common platform, enjoyed perfect consolation

and peace, and breathed that free atmosphere which is denied to those

cloistered in cottages and palatial mansions.

It was also the Buddha who banned the sacrifice of poor beasts and

admonished His followers to extend their loving kindness (//Metta//)

to all living beings -- even to the tiniest creature that crawls at

one's feet. No man has the power or the right to destroy the life of

another as life is precious to all.

A genuine Buddhist would exercise this loving-kindness towards every

living being and identify himself with all, making no distinction

whatsoever with regard to caste, colour or sex.

It is this Buddhist Metta that attempts to break all the barriers

which separate one from another. There is no reason to keep aloof

from others merely because they belong to another persuasion or

another nationality. In that noble Toleration Edict which is based on

//Culla-Vyuha// and //Maha-Vyuha// Suttas, Asoka says: "Concourse

alone is best, that is, all should harken willingly to the doctrine

professed by others."

Buddhism is not confined to any country or any particular nation. It

is universal. It is not nationalism which, in other words, is another

form of caste system founded on a wider basis. Buddhism, if it be

permitted to say so, is supernationalism.

To a Buddhist there is no far or near, no enemy or foreigner, no

renegade or untouchable, since universal love realized through

understanding has established the brotherhood of all living beings. A

real Buddhist is a citizen of the world. He regards the whole world

as his motherland and all as his brothers and sisters.

Buddhism is, therefore, unique, mainly owing to its tolerance,

non-aggressiveness, rationality, practicability, efficacy and

universality. It is the noblest of all unifying influences and the

only lever that can uplift the world.

These are some of the salient features of Buddhism, and amongst some

of the fundamental doctrines may be said -- Kamma or the Law of Moral

Causation, the Doctrine of Rebirth, Anatta and Nibbana.

* * *

Chapter VI

KAMMA OR THE LAW OF MORAL CAUSATION

We are faced with a totally ill-balanced world. We perceive the

inequalities and manifold destinies of men and the numerous grades of

beings that exist in the universe. We see one born into a condition

of affluence, endowed with fine mental, moral and physical qualities

and another into a condition of abject poverty and wretchedness. Here

is a man virtuous and holy, but, contrary to his expectation, ill-luck

is ever ready to greet him. The wicked world runs counter to his

ambitions and desires. He is poor and miserable in spite of his

honest dealings and piety. There is another vicious and foolish, but

accounted to be fortune's darling. He is rewarded with all forms of

favors, despite his shortcomings and evil modes of life.

Why, it may be questioned, should one be an inferior and another a

superior? Why should one be wrested from the hands of a fond mother

when he has scarcely seen a few summers, and another should perish in

the flower or manhood, or at the ripe age of eighty or hundred? Why

should one be sick and infirm, and another strong and healthy? Why

should one be handsome, and another ugly and hideous, repulsive to

all? Why should one be brought up in the lap of luxury, and another

in absolute poverty, steeped in misery? Why should one be born a

millionaire and another a pauper? Why should one be born with saintly

characteristics, and another with criminal tendencies? Why should

some be linguists, artists, mathematicians or musicians from the very

cradle? Why should some be congenitally blind, deaf and deformed? Why

should some be blessed and others cursed from their birth?

These are some problems that perplex the minds of all thinking men.

How are we to account for all this unevenness of the world, this

inequality of mankind?

Is it due to the work of blind chance or accident?

There is nothing in this world that happens by blind chance or

accident. To say that anything happens by chance, is no more true

than that this book has come here of itself. Strictly speaking,

nothing happens to man that he does not deserve for some reason or

another.

Could this be the fiat of an irresponsible Creator?

Huxley writes:

"If we are to assume that anybody has designedly set this

wonderful universe going, it is perfectly clear to me that he is

no more entirely benevolent and just in any intelligible sense

of the words, than that he is malevolent and unjust."

According to Einstein:

"If this being (God) is omnipotent, then every occurrence,

including every human action, every human thought, and every

human feeling and aspiration is also his work; how is it

possible to think of holding men responsible for their deeds and

thoughts before such an Almighty Being.

"In giving out punishments and rewards, he would to a certain

extent be passing judgement on himself. How can this be

combined with the goodness and righteousness ascribed to him."

"According to the theological principles man is created

arbitrarily and without his desire and at the moment of his

creation is either blessed or damned eternally. Hence man is

either good or evil, fortunate or unfortunate, noble or

depraved, from the first step in the process of his physical

creation to the moment of his last breath, regardless of his

individual desires, hopes, ambitions, struggles or devoted

prayers. Such is theological fatalism."

-- Spencer Lewis

As Charles Bradlaugh says:

"The existence of evil is a terrible stumbling block to the

Theist. Pain, misery, crime, poverty confront the advocate of

eternal goodness and challenge with unanswerable potency his

declaration of Deity as all-good, all-wise, and all-powerful."

In the words of Schopenhauer:

"Whoever regards himself as having become out of nothing must

also think that he will again become nothing; for an eternity

has passed before he was, and then a second eternity had begun,

through which he will never cease to be, is a monstrous thought.

"If birth is the absolute beginning, then death must be his

absolute end; and the assumption that man is made out of nothing

leads necessarily to the assumption that death is his absolute

end."

Commenting on human sufferings and God, Prof. J.B.S. Haldane

writes:

"Either suffering is needed to perfect human character, or God

is not Almighty. The former theory is disproved by the fact

that some people who have suffered very little but have been

fortunate in their ancestry and education have very fine

characters. The objection to the second is that it is only in

connection with the universe as a whole that there is any

intellectual gap to be filled by the postulation of a deity. And

a creator could presumably create whatever he or it wanted."

Lord Russell states:

"The world, we are told, was created by a God who is both good

and omnipotent. Before He created the world he foresaw all the

pain and misery that it would contain. He is therefore

responsible for all of it. it is useless to argue that the pain

in the world is due to sin. If God knew in advance the sins of

which man would be guilty, He was clearly responsible for all

the consequences of those sins when He decided to create man."

In "Despair," a poem of his old age, Lord Tennyson thus boldly attacks

God, who, as recorded in Isaiah, says, "I make peace and create evil."

(Isaiah, xiv. 7.)

"What! I should call on that infinite love that has

served us so well?

Infinite cruelty, rather that made everlasting hell,

Made us, foreknew us, foredoomed us, and does

what he will with his own.

Better our dead brute mother who never has heard

us groan."

Surely "the doctrine that all men are sinners and have the essential

sin of Adam is a challenge to justice, mercy, love and omnipotent

fairness."

Some writers of old authoritatively declared that God created man in

his own image. Some modern thinkers state, on the contrary, that man

created God in his own image. With the growth of civilization man's

concept of God also became more and more refined.

It is however, impossible to conceive of such a being either in or

outside the universe.

Could this variation be due to heredity and environment? One must

admit that all such chemico-physical phenomena revealed by scientists,

are partly instrumental, but they cannot be solely responsible for the

subtle distinctions and vast differences that exist amongst

individuals. Yet why should identical twins who are physically alike,

inheriting like genes, enjoying the same privilege of upbringing, be

very often temperamentally, morally and intellectually totally

different?

Heredity alone cannot account for these vast differences. Strictly

speaking, it accounts more plausibly for their similarities than for

most of the differences. The infinitesimally minute chemico-physical

germ, which is about 30 millionth part of an inch across, inherited

from parents, explains only a portion of man, his physical foundation.

With regard to the more complex and subtle mental, intellectual and

moral differences we need more enlightenment. The theory of heredity

cannot give a satisfactory explanation for the birth of a criminal in

a long line of honourable ancestors, the birth of a saint or a noble

man in a family of evil repute, for the arising of infant prodigies,

men of genius and great religious teachers.

According to Buddhism this variation is due not only to heredity,

environment, "nature and nurture," but also to our own kamma, or in

other words, to the result of our own inherited past actions and our

present deeds. We ourselves are responsible for our own deeds,

happiness and misery. We build our own hells. We create our own

heavens. We are the architects of our own fate. In short we

ourselves are our own kamma.

On one occasion [*] a certain young man named Subha approached the Buddha,

and questioned why and wherefore it was that among human beings there

are the low and high states.

* [//Culakamma Vibhanga Sutta// -- Majjhima Nikaya, No. 135.]

"For," said he, "we find amongst mankind those of brief life and those

of long life, the hale and the ailing, the good looking and the

ill-looking, the powerful and the powerless, the poor and the rich,

the low-born and the high-born, the ignorant and the intelligent."

The Buddha briefly replied: "Every living being has kamma as its own,

its inheritance, its cause, its kinsman, its refuge. Kamma is that

which differentiates all living beings into low and high states."

He then explained the cause of such differences in accordance with the

law of moral causation.

Thus from a Buddhist standpoint, our present mental, intellectual,

moral and temperamental differences are mainly due to our own actions

and tendencies, both past the present.

Kamma, literally, means action; but, in its ultimate sense, it means

the meritorious and demeritorious volition (//Kusala Akusala

Cetana//). Kamma constitutes both good and evil. Good gets good.

Evil gets evil. Like attracts like. This is the law of Kamma.

As some Westerners prefer to say Kamma is "action-influence."

We reap what we have sown. What we sow we reap somewhere or some

when. In one sense we are the result of what we were; we will be the

result of what we are. In another sense, we are not totally the

result of what we were and we will not absolutely be the result of

what we are. For instance, a criminal today may be a saint tomorrow.

Buddhism attributes this variation to Kamma, but it does not assert

that everything is due to Kamma.

If everything were due to Kamma, a man must ever be bad, for it is his

Kamma to be bad. One need not consult a physician to be cured of a

disease, for if one's Kamma is such one will be cured.

According to Buddhism, there are five orders or processes

(//Niyamas//) which operate in the physical and mental realms:

i. //Kamma Niyama//, order of act and result, e.g., desirable and

undesirable acts produce corresponding good and bad results.

ii. //Utu Niyama//, physical (inorganic) order, e.g., seasonal

phenomena of winds and rains.

iii. //Bija Niyama//, order of germs or seeds (physical organic

order); e.g., rice produced from rice-seed, sugary taste from

sugar cane or honey etc. The scientific theory of cells and

genes and the physical similarity of twins may be ascribed to

this order.

iv. //Citta Niyama//, order of mind or psychic law, e.g.,

processes of consciousness (//Citta vithi//), power of mind

etc.

v. //Dhamma Niyama//, order of the norm, e.g., the natural

phenomena occurring at the advent of a Boddhisatta in his last

birth, gravitation, etc.

Every mental or physical phenomenon could be explained by these

all-embracing five orders or processes which are laws in themselves.

Kamma is, therefore, only one of the five orders that prevail in the

universe. It is a law in itself, but it does not thereby follow that

there should be a law-giver. Ordinary laws of nature, like

gravitation, need no law-giver. It operates in its own field without

the intervention of an external independent ruling agency.

Nobody, for instance, has decreed that fire should burn. Nobody has

commanded that water should seek its own level. No scientist has

ordered that water should consist of H2O, and that coldness should be

one of its properties. These are their intrinsic characteristics.

Kamma is neither fate nor predestination imposed upon us by some

mysterious unknown power to which we must helplessly submit ourselves.

It is one's own doing reacting on oneself, and so one has the

possibility to divert the course of Kamma to some extent. How far one

diverts it depends on oneself.

It must also be said that such phraseology as rewards and punishments

should not be allowed to enter into discussions concerning the problem

of Kamma. For Buddhism does not recognize an Almighty Being who rules

His subjects and rewards and punishes them accordingly. Buddhists, on

the contrary, believe that sorrow and happiness one experiences are

the natural outcome of one's own good and bad actions. It should be

stated that Kamma has both the continuative and the retributive

principle.

Inherent in Kamma is the potentiality of producing its due effect. The

cause produces the effect; the effect explains the cause. Seed

produces the fruit; the fruit explains the seed as both are

inter-related. Even so Kamma and its effect are inter-related; "the

effect already blooms in the cause."

A Buddhist who is fully convinced of the doctrine of Kamma does not

pray to another to be saved but confidently relies on himself for his

purification because it teaches individual responsibility.

It is this doctrine of Kamma that gives him consolation, hope, self

reliance and moral courage. It is this belief in Kamma "that

validates his effort, kindles his enthusiasm," makes him ever kind,

tolerant and considerate. It is also this firm belief in Kamma that

prompts him to refrain from evil, do good and be good without being

frightened of any punishment or tempted by any reward.

It is this doctrine of Kamma that can explain the problem of

suffering, the mystery of so-called fate or predestination of other

religions, and above all the inequality of mankind.

Kamma and rebirth are accepted as axiomatic.

* * *

Chapter VII

RE-BIRTH

As long as this Kammic force exists there is re-birth, for beings are

merely the visible manifestation of this invisible Kammic force. Death

is nothing but the temporary end of this temporary phenomenon. It is

not the complete annihilation of this so-called being. The organic

life has ceased, but the Kammic force which hitherto actuated it has

not been destroyed. As the Kammic force remains entirely undisturbed

by the disintegration of the fleeting body, the passing away of the

present dying thought-moment only conditions a fresh consciousness in

another birth.

It is Kamma, rooted in ignorance and craving, that conditions rebirth.

Past Kamma conditions the present birth; and present Kamma, in

combination with past Kamma, conditions the future. The present is

the offspring of the past, and becomes, in turn, the parent of the

future.

If we postulate a past, present, and a future life, then we are at

once faced with the alleged mysterious problem -- "What is the

ultimate origin of life?"

Either there must be a beginning or there cannot be a beginning for

life.

One school, in attempting to solve the problem, postulates a first

cause, God, viewed as a force or as an Almighty Being.

Another school denies a first cause for, in common experience, the

cause ever becomes the effect and the effect becomes the cause. In a

circle of cause and effect a first cause is inconceivable. According

to the former, life has had a beginning, according to the latter, it

is beginningless.

From the scientific standpoint, we are the direct products of the

sperm and ovum cells provided by our parents. As such life precedes

life. With regard to the origin of the first protoplasm of life, or

colloid, scientists plead ignorance.

According to Buddhism we are born from the matrix of action

(Kammayoni). Parents merely provide an infinitesimally small cell.

As such being precedes being. At the moment of conception it is past

Kamma that conditions the initial consciousness that vitalizes the

fetus. It is this invisible Kammic energy, generated from the past

birth that produces mental phenomena and the phenomenon of life in an

already extent physical phenomenon, to complete the trio that

constitutes man.

For a being to be born here a being must die somewhere. The birth of

a being, which strictly means the arising of the five aggregates or

psycho-physical phenomena in this present life, corresponds to the

death of a being in a past life; just as, in conventional terms, the

rising of the sun in one place means the setting of the sun in another

place. This enigmatic statement may be better understood by imagining

life as a wave and not as a straight line. Birth and death are only

two phases of the same process. Birth precedes death, and death, on

the other hand, precedes birth. The constant succession of birth and

death in connection with each individual life flux constitutes what is

technically known as //Samsara// -- recurrent wandering.

What is the ultimate origin of life?

The Buddha declares:

"Without cognizable end is this Samsara. A first beginning of

beings, who, obstructed by ignorance and fettered by craving,

wander and fare on, is not to be perceived."

This life-stream flows //ad infinitum//, as long as it is fed by the

muddy waters of ignorance and craving. When these two are completely

cut off, then only, if one so wishes, does the stream cease to flow,

rebirth ends as in the case of the Buddhas and Arahats. An ultimate

beginning of this life-stream cannot be determined, as a stage cannot

be perceived when this life-force was not fraught with ignorance and

craving.

The Buddha has here referred merely to the beginning of the

life-stream of living beings. It is left to scientists to speculate

on the origin and the evolution of the universe. The Buddha does not

attempt to solve all the ethical and philosophical problems that

perplex mankind. Nor does He deal with theories and speculations that

tend neither to edification nor to enlightenment. Nor does He demand

blind faith from His adherents. He is chiefly concerned with the

problem of suffering and its destruction. With but this one practical

and specific purpose in view, all irrelevant side issues are

completely ignored.

But how are we to believe that there is a past existence?

The most valuable evidence Buddhists cite in favor of rebirth is the

Buddha, for He developed a knowledge which enabled Him to read past

and future lives.

Following His instructions, His disciples also developed this

knowledge and were able to read their past lives to a great extent.

Even some Indian Rishis, before the advent of the Buddha, were

distinguished for such psychic powers as clairaudience, clairvoyance,

thought-reading, remembering past births, etc.

There are also some persons, who probably in accordance with the laws

of association, spontaneously develop the memory of their past birth,

and remember fragments of their previous lives. Such cases are very

rare, but those few well-attested, respectable cases tend to throw

some light on the idea of a past birth. So are the experiences of

some modern dependable psychics and strange cases of alternating and

multiple personalities.

In hypnotic states some relate experiences of their past lives; while

a few others, read the past lives of others and even heal diseases.

[*]

* [See //Many Mansions// and //The World Within// by Gina Cerminara.]

Sometimes we get strange experiences which cannot be explained but by

rebirth.

How often do we meet persons whom we have never met, and yet

instinctively feel that they are quite familiar to us? How often do

we visit places, and yet feel impressed that we are perfectly

acquainted with those surroundings?

The Buddha tells us:

"Through previous associations or present advantage, that old

love springs up again like the lotus in the water."

Experiences of some reliable modern psychics, ghostly phenomena,

spirit communications, strange alternating and multiple personalities

and so on shed some light upon this problem of rebirth.

Into this world come Perfect Ones like the Buddhas and highly

developed personalities. Do they evolve suddenly? Can they be the

products of a single existence?

How are we to account for great characters like Buddhaghosa, Panini,

Kalidasa, Homer and Plato; men of genius like Shakespeare, infant

prodigies like Pascal, Mozart, Beethoven, Raphael, Ramanujan, etc.?

Heredity alone cannot account for them. "Else their ancestry would

disclose it, their posterity, even greater than themselves,

demonstrate it."

Could they rise to such lofty heights if they had not lived noble

lives and gained similar experiences in the past? Is it by mere

chance that they are been born or those particular parents and placed

under those favorable circumstances?

The few years that we are privileged to spend here or, for the most

five score years, must certainly be an inadequate preparation for

eternity.

If one believes in the present and in the future, it is quite logical

to believe in the past. The present is the offspring of the past, and

acts in turn as the parent of the future.

If there are reasons to believe that we have existed in the past, then

surely there are no reasons to disbelieve that we shall continue to

exist after our present life has apparently ceased.

It is indeed a strong argument in favor of past and future lives that

"in this world virtuous persons are very often unfortunate and vicious

persons prosperous."

A Western writer says:

"Whether we believe in a past existence or not, it forms the

only reasonable hypothesis which bridges certain gaps in human

knowledge concerning certain facts of every day life. Our

reason tells us that this idea of past birth and Kamma alone can

explain the degrees of difference that exist between twins, how

men like Shakespeare with a very limited experience are able to

portray with marvelous exactitude the most diverse types of

human character, scenes and so forth of which they could have no

actual knowledge, why the work of the genius invariably

transcends his experience, the existence of infant precocity,

the vast diversity in mind and morals, in brain and physique, in

conditions, circumstances and environment observable throughout

the world, and so forth."

It should be stated that this doctrine of rebirth can neither be

proved nor disproved experimentally, but it is accepted as an

evidentially verifiable fact.

The cause of this Kamma, continues the Buddha, is //avijja// or

ignorance of the Four Noble Truths. Ignorance is, therefore, the

cause of birth and death; and its transmutation into knowingness or

//vijja// is consequently their cessation.

The result of this analytical method is summed up in the //Paticca

Samuppada//.

* * *

Chapter VIII

PATICCA SAMUPPADA

//Paticca// means because of, or dependent upon: //Samuppada//

"arising or origination." //Paticca Samuppada//, therefore, literally

means -- "Dependent Arising" or "Dependent Origination."

It must be borne in mind that //Paticca Samuppada// is only a

discourse on the process of birth and death and not a theory of the

ultimate origin of life. It deals with the cause of rebirth and

suffering, but it does not in the least attempt to show the evolution

of the world from primordial matter.

Ignorance (//Avijja//) is the first link or cause of the wheel of

life. It clouds all right understanding.

Dependent on ignorance of the Four Noble Truths arise activities

(//Sankhara//) -- both moral and immoral. The activities whether good

or bad rooted in ignorance which must necessarily have their due

effects, only tend to prolong life's wandering. Nevertheless, good

actions are essential to get rid of the ills of life.

Dependent on activities arise rebirth-consciousness (//Vinnana//).

This links the past with the present.

Simultaneous with the arising of rebirth-consciousness there come

into being mind and body (//Nama-rupa//).

The six senses (//Salayatana//) are the inevitable consequences of

mind and body.

Because of the six senses contact (//Phassa//) sets in. Contact leads

to feeling (//Vedana//).

These five -- viz., consciousness, mind and matter, six senses,

contact and feeling -- are the effects of past actions and are called

the passive side of life.

Dependent on feeling arises craving (//Tanha//). Craving results in

grasping (//Upadana//). Grasping is the cause of Kamma (//Bhava//)

which in its turn, conditions future birth (//Jati//). Birth is the

inevitable cause of old age and death (//Jara-marana//).

If on account of cause effect comes to be, then if the cause ceases,

the effect also must cease.

The reverse order of the //Paticca Samuppada// will make the matter

clear.

Old age and death are possible in and with a psychophysical organism.

Such an organism must be born; therefore it pre-supposes birth. But

birth is the inevitable result of past deeds or Kamma. Kamma is

conditioned by grasping which is due to craving. Such craving can

appear only where feeling exists. Feeling is the outcome of contact

between the senses and objects. Therefore it presupposes organs of

senses which cannot exist without mind and body. Where there is a

mind there is consciousness. It is the result of past good and evil.

The acquisition of good and evil is due to ignorance of things as they

truly are.

The whole formula may be summed up thus:

Dependent on Ignorance arise Activities (Moral and Immoral)

" " Activities arises Consciousness (Re-birth Consciousness)

" " Consciousness arise Mind and Matter

" " Mind and Matter arise the six Spheres of Sense

" " the Six Spheres of Sense arises Contact

" " Contact arises Feeling

" " Feeling arises Craving

" " Craving arises Grasping

" " Grasping arise Actions (Kamma)

" " Actions arises Rebirth

" " Birth arise Decay, Death, Sorrow, Lamentation, Pain,

Grief, and Despair.

Thus does the entire aggregate of suffering arise. The first two of

these twelve pertain to the past, the middle eight to the present, and

the last two to the future.

The complete cessation of Ignorance leads to the cessation of

Activities.

The cessation of Activities leads to the cessation of Consciousness.

" " " Consciousness leads to the cessation of mind and matter.

" " " Mind and Matter leads to the cessation of the six

Spheres of Sense.

" " " the six Spheres of Sense leads to the cessation of Contact,

" " " Contact leads to the cessation of Feeling.

" " " Feeling leads to the cessation of Craving.

" " " Craving leads to the cessation of Grasping.

" " " Grasping leads to the cessation of Actions.

" " " Actions leads to the cessation of Re-birth.

" " " Re-birth leads to the cessation of Decay, Death,

Sorrow, Lamentation, Pain, Grief, and Despair.

Thus does the cessation of this entire aggregate of suffering result.

This process of cause and effect continues ad infinitum. The

beginning of this process cannot be determined as it is impossible to

say whence this life-flux was encompassed by nescience. But when this

nescience is turned into knowledge, and the life-flux is diverted into

//Nibbanadhatu//, then the end of the life process of //Samsara//

comes about.

* * *

Chapter IX

ANATTA OR SOUL-LESSNESS

This Buddhist doctrine of re-birth should be distinguished from the

theory of re-incarnation which implies the transmigration of a soul

and its invariable material rebirth. Buddhism denies the existence of

an unchanging or eternal soul created by a God or emanating from a

Divine Essence (//Paramatma//).

If the immortal soul, which is supposed to be the essence of man, is

eternal, there cannot be either a rise or a fall. Besides one cannot

understand why "different souls are so variously constituted at the

outset."

To prove the existence of endless felicity in an eternal heaven and

unending torments in an eternal hell, an immortal soul is absolutely

necessary. Otherwise, what is it that is punished in hell or rewarded

in heaven?

"It should be said," writes Bertrand Russell, "that the old

distinction between soul and body has evaporated quite as much because

'matter' has lost its solidity as mind has lost its spirituality.

Psychology is just beginning to be scientific. In the present state

of psychology belief in immortality can at any rate claim no support

from science."

Buddhists do agree with Russell when he says "there is obviously some

reason in which I am the same person as I was yesterday, and, to take

an even more obvious example if I simultaneously see a man and hear

him speaking, there is some sense in which the 'I' that sees is the

same as the 'I' that hears."

Till recently scientists believed in an indivisible and indestructible

atom. "For sufficient reasons physicists have reduced this atom to a

series of events. For equally good reasons psychologists find that

mind has not the identity of a single continuing thing but is a series

of occurrences bound together by certain intimate relations. The

question of immortality, therefore, has become the question whether

these intimate relations exist between occurrences connected with a

living body and other occurrence which take place after that body is

dead."

As C.E.M. Joad says in "The Meaning of Life," matter has since

disintegrated under our very eyes. It is no longer solid; it is no

longer enduring; it is no longer determined by compulsive causal laws;

and more important than all, it is no longer known.

The so-called atoms, it seems, are both "divisible and destructible."

The electrons and protons that compose atoms "can meet and annihilate

one another while their persistence, such as it is, is rather that of

a wave lacking fixed boundaries, and in process of continual change

both as regards shape and position than that of a thing." [*]

* [C.E.M. Joad, //The Meaning of Life//]

Bishop Berkeley who showed that this so-called atom is a metaphysical

fiction held that there exists a spiritual substance called the soul.

Hume, for instance, looked into consciousness and perceived hat there

was nothing except fleeting mental states and concluded that the

supposed "permanent ego" is non-existent.

"There are some philosophers," he says, "who imagine we are every

moment conscious of what we call 'ourself,' that we feel its existence

and its continuance in existence and so we are certain, both of its

perfect identity and simplicity. For my part, when I enter most

intimately into what I call 'myself' I always stumble on some

particular perception or other -- of heat or cold, light or shade,

love or hatred, pain or pleasure. I never catch myself... and never

can observe anything but the perception... nor do I conceive what is

further requisite to make me a perfect non-entity."

Bergson says, "All consciousness is time existence; and a conscious

state is not a state that endures without changing. It is a change

without ceasing, when change ceases it ceases; it is itself nothing

but change."

Dealing with this question of soul Prof. James says -- "The

soul-theory is a complete superfluity, so far as accounting for the

actually verified facts of conscious experience goes. So far no one

can be compelled to subscribe to it for definite scientific reasons."

In concluding his interesting chapter on the soul he says: "And in

this book the provisional solution which we have reached must be the

final word: the thoughts themselves are the thinkers."

Watson, a distinguished psychologist, states: "No one has ever touched

a soul or has seen one in a test tube or has in any way come into

relationship with it as he has with the other objects of his daily

experience. Nevertheless to doubt its existence is to become a

heretic and once might possibly even had led to the loss of one's

head. Even today a man holding a public position dare not question

it."

The Buddha anticipated these facts some 2500 years ago.

According to Buddhism mind is nothing but a complex compound of

fleeting mental states. One unit of consciousness consists of three

phases -- arising or genesis (//uppada//) static or development

(//thiti//), and cessation or dissolution (//bhanga//). Immediately

after the cessation stage of a thought moment there occurs the genesis

stage of the subsequent thought-moment. Each momentary consciousness

of this ever-changing life-process, on passing away, transmits its

whole energy, all the indelibly recorded impressions to its successor.

Every fresh consciousness consists of the potentialities of its

predecessors together with something more. There is therefore, a

continuous flow of consciousness like a stream without any

interruption. The subsequent thought moment is neither absolutely the

same as its predecessor -- since that which goes to make it up is not

identical -- nor entirely another -- being the same continuity of

Kamma energy. Here there is no identical being but there is an

identity in process.

Every moment there is birth, every moment there is death. The arising

of one thought-moment means the passing away of another thought-moment

and vice versa. In the course of one life-time there is momentary

rebirth without a soul.

It must not be understood that a consciousness is chopped up in bits

and joined together like a train or a chain. But, on the contrary,

"it persistently flows on like a river receiving from the tributary

streams of sense constant accretions to its flood, and ever dispensing

to the world without the thought-stuff it has gathered by the way."

[*] It has birth for its source and death for its mouth. The rapidity

of the flow is such that hardly is there any standard whereby it can

be measured even approximately. However, it pleases the commentators

to say that the time duration of one thought-moment is even less than

one-billionth part of the time occupied by a flash of lightning.

*[See //Compendium of Philosophy//, Tr. by Shwe Zan Aung (Pali Text

Society, London) -- Introduction p. 12.]

Here we find a juxtaposition of such fleeting mental states of

consciousness opposed to a superposition of such states as some appear

to believe. No state once gone ever recurs nor is identical with what

goes before. But we worldlings, veiled by the web of illusion,

mistake this apparent continuity to be something eternal and go to the

extent of introducing an unchanging soul, an Atta, the supposed doer

and receptacle of all actions to this ever-changing consciousness.

"The so-called being is like a flash of lightning that is resolved

into a succession of sparks that follow upon one another with such

rapidity that the human retina cannot perceive them separately, nor

can the uninstructed conceive of such succession of separate sparks."

[*] As the wheel of a cart rests on the ground at one point, so does

the being live only for one thought-moment. It is always in the

present, and is ever slipping into the irrevocable past. What we

shall become is determined by this present thought-moment.

* [Compare the cinematograph film where the individual photographs

give rise to a notion of movement.]

If there is no soul, what is it that is reborn, one might ask. Well,

there is nothing to be re-born. When life ceases the Kammic energy

re-materializes itself in another form. As Bhikkhu Silacara says:

"Unseen it passes whithersoever the conditions appropriate to its

visible manifestation are present. Here showing itself as a tiny gnat

or worm, there making its presence known in the dazzling magnificence

of a Deva or an Archangel's existence. When one mode of its

manifestation ceases it merely passes on, and where suitable

circumstances offer, reveals itself afresh in another name or form."

Birth is the arising of the psycho-physical phenomena. Death is

merely the temporary end of a temporary phenomenon.

Just as the arising of a physical state is conditioned by a preceding

state as its cause, so the appearance of psycho-physical phenomena is

conditioned by cause anterior to its birth. As the process of one

life-span is possible without a permanent entity passing from one

thought-moment to another, so a series of life-processes is possible

without an immortal soul to transmigrate from one existence to

another.

Buddhism does not totally deny the existence of a personality in an

empirical sense. It only attempts to show that it does not exist in

an ultimate sense. The Buddhist philosophical term for an individual

is //Santana//, i.e., a flux or a continuity. It includes the mental

and physical elements as well. The Kammic force of each individual

binds the elements together. This uninterrupted flux or continuity of

psycho-physical phenomenon, which is conditioned by Kamma, and not

limited only to the present life, but having its source in the

beginningless past and its continuation in the future -- is the

Buddhist substitute for the permanent ego or the immortal soul of

other religions.

* * *

Chapter X

NIBBANA

This process of birth and death continues //ad infinitum// until this

flux is transmuted, so to say, to Nibbanadhatu, the ultimate goal of

Buddhists.

The Pali word Nibbana is formed of //Ni// and //Vana//. //Ni// is a

negative particle and //Vana// means lusting or craving. "It is

called Nibbana, in that it is a departure from the craving which is

called //Vana//, lusting." Literally, Nibbana means non-attachment.

It may also be defined as the extinction of lust, hatred and

ignorance, "The whole world is in flames," says the Buddha. "By what

fire is it kindled? By the fire of lust, hatred and ignorance, by the

fire of birth, old age, death, pain, lamentation, sorrow, grief and

despair it is kindled."

It should not be understood that Nibbana is a state of nothingness or

annihilation owing to the fact that we cannot perceive it with our

worldly knowledge. One cannot say that there exists no light just

because the blind man does not see it. In that well known story, too,

the fish arguing with his friend, the turtle, triumphantly concluded

that there exists no land.

Nibbana of the Buddhists is neither a mere nothingness nor a state of

annihilation, but what it is no words can adequately express. Nibbana

is a Dhamma which is "unborn, unoriginated, uncreated and unformed."

Hence, it is eternal (//Dhuva//), desirable (//Subha//), and happy

(//Sukha//).

In Nibbana nothing is "eternalized," nor is anything "annihilated,"

besides suffering.

According to the Books references are made to Nibbana as

//Sopadisesa// and //Anupadisesa//. These, in fact, are not two kinds

of Nibbana, but the one single Nibbana, receiving its name according

to the way it is experienced before and after death.

Nibbana is not situated in any place nor is it a sort of heaven where

a transcendental ego resides. It is a state which is dependent upon

this body itself. It is an attainment (Dhamma) which is within the

reach of all. Nibbana is a supramundane state attainable even in this

present life. Buddhism does not state that this ultimate goal could

be reached only in a life beyond. Here lies the chief difference

between the Buddhist conception of Nibbana and the non-Buddhist

conception of an eternal heaven attainable only after death or a union

with a God or Divine Essence in an after-life. When Nibbana is

realized in this life with the body remaining, it is called

//Sopadisesa Nibbana-dhatu//. When an Arahat attains Parinibbana,

after the dissolution of his body, without any remainder of physical

existence it is called //Anupadisesa Nibbana-dhatu//.

In the words of Sir Edwin Arnold:

"If any teach Nirvana is to cease

Say unto such they lie.

If any teach Nirvana is to love

Say unto such they err."

From a metaphysical standpoint Nibbana is deliverance from suffering.

From a psychological standpoint Nibbana is the eradication of egoism.

From an ethical standpoint Nibbana is the destruction of lust, hatred

and ignorance.

Does the Arahat exist or not after death?

The Buddha replies:

"The Arahat who has been released from the five aggregates is

deep, immeasurable like the mighty ocean. To say that he is

reborn would not fit the case. To say that he is neither reborn

nor not reborn would not fit the case."

One cannot say that an Arahat is reborn as all passions that condition

rebirth are eradicated; nor can one say that the Arahat is annihilated

for there is nothing to annihilate.

Robert Oppenheimer, a scientist, writes:

"If we ask, for instance, whether the position of the electron

remains the same, we must say 'no'; if we ask whether the

electron's position changes with time, we must say 'no'; if we

ask whether the electron is at rest, we must say 'no'; if we

ask whether it is in motion, we must say 'no'.

"The Buddha has given such answers when interrogated as to the

conditions of man's self after death; [*] but they are not

familiar answers from the tradition of the 17th and 18th century

science."

* [Evidently the writer is referring to the state of an Arahat after

death.]

* * *

Chapter XI

THE PATH TO NIBBANA

How is Nibbana to be attained?

It is by following the Noble Eight-fold Path which consists of Right

Understanding (//Samma-ditthi//), Right Thoughts (//samma-sankappa//),

Right Speech (//samma-vaca//), Right Actions (//samma-kammanta//),

Right Livelihood (//samma-ajiva//), Right Effort (//samma-vayama//),

Right Mindfulness (//samma-sati//), and Right Concentration

(//samma-samadhi//).

1. //Right Understanding//, which is the key-note of Buddhism, is

explained as the knowledge of the four Noble Truths. To understand

rightly means to understand things as they really are and not as they

appear to be. This refers primarily to a correct understanding of

oneself, because, as the Rohitassa Sutta states, "Dependent on this

one-fathom long body with its consciousness" are all the four Truths.

In the practice of the Noble Eightfold Path, Right Understanding

stands at the beginning as well as at its end. A minimum degree of

Right Understanding is necessary at the very beginning because it

gives the right motivations to the other seven factors of the Path and

gives to them correct direction. At the culmination of the practice,

Right Understanding has matured into perfect Insight Wisdom

(//vipassana-panna//), leading directly to the Stages of Sainthood.

2. Clear vision of right understanding leads to clear thinking. The

second factor of the Noble Eight-fold Path is therefore, //Right

Thoughts// (//samma-sankappa//), which serves the double purpose of

eliminating evil thoughts and developing pure thoughts. Right

Thoughts, in this particular connection, are three fold. They consist

of:

i. //Nekkhamma// -- Renunciation of worldly pleasures or the

virtue of selflessness, which is opposed to attachment,

selfishness, and possessiveness;

ii. //Avyapada// -- Loving-kindness, goodwill, or benevolence,

which is opposed to hatred, ill-will, or aversion; and

iii. //Avihimsa// -- Harmlessness or compassion, which is

opposed to cruelty and callousness.

3. Right Thoughts lead to //Right Speech//, the third factor. This

includes abstinence from falsehood, slandering, harsh words, and

frivolous talk.

4. Right Speech must be followed by //Right Action// which comprises

abstinence from killing, stealing and sexual misconduct.

5. Purifying his thoughts, words and deeds at the outset, the

spiritual pilgrim tries to purify his //livelihood// by refraining

from the five kinds of trade which are forbidden to a lay-disciple.

They are trading in arms, human beings, animals for slaughter,

intoxicating drinks and drugs, and poisons.

For monks, wrong livelihood consists of hypocritical conduct and wrong

means of obtaining the requisites of monk-life.

6. //Right Effort// is fourfold, namely:

i. the endeavor to discard evil that has already arisen;

ii. the endeavor to prevent the arising of unarisen evil;

iii. the endeavor to develop unarisen good;

iv. the endeavor to promote the good which has already arisen.

7. //Right Mindfulness// is constant mindfulness with regard to body,

feelings, thoughts, and mind-objects.

8. Right Effort and Right Mindfulness lead to //Right

Concentration//. It is the one-pointedness of mind, culminating in

the Jhanas or meditative absorptions.

Of these eight factors of the Noble Eightfold Path the first two are

grouped under the heading of Wisdom (//panna//), the following three

under Morality (//sila//), and the last three under Concentration

(//samadhi//). But according to the order of development the sequence

is as follows:

I. Morality (//sila//)

Right Speech

Right Action

Right Livelihood

II. Concentration (//samadhi//)

Right Effort

Right Mindfulness

Right Concentration

III. Wisdom (//panna//)

Right Understanding

Right Thoughts

Morality (//sila//) is the first stage on this path to Nibbana.

Without killing or causing injury to any living creature, man should

be kind and compassionate towards all, even to the tiniest creature

that crawls at his feet. Refraining from stealing, he should be

upright and honest in all his dealings. Abstaining from sexual

misconduct which debases the exalted nature of man, he should be pure.

Shunning false speech, he should be truthful. Avoiding pernicious

drinks that promote heedlessness, he should be sober and diligent.

These elementary principles of regulated behavior are essential to

one who treads the path to Nibbana. Violation of them means the

introduction of obstacles on the path which will obstruct his moral

progress. Observance of them means steady and smooth progress along

the path.

The spiritual pilgrim, disciplining thus his words and deeds, may

advance a step further and try to control his senses.

While he progresses slowly and steadily with regulated word and deed

and restrained senses, the Kammic force of this striving aspirant may

compel him to renounce worldly pleasures and adopt the ascetic life.

To him then comes the idea that,

"A den of strife is household life,

And filled with toil and need;

But free and high as the open sky

Is the life the homeless lead."

It should not be understood that everyone is expected to lead the life

of a Bhikkhu or a celibate life to achieve one's goal. One's

spiritual progress is expedited by being a Bhikkhu although as a lay

follower one can become an Arahat. After attaining the third state of

Sainthood, one leads a life of celibacy.

Securing a firm footing on the ground of morality, the progressing

pilgrim then embarks upon the higher practice of Samadhi, the control

and culture of the mind -- the second stage on this Path.

Samadhi -- is the "one-pointedness of the mind." It is the

concentration of the mind on one object to the entire exclusion of all

irrelevant matter.

There are different subjects for meditation according to the

temperaments of the individuals. Concentration on respiration is the

easiest to gain the one-pointedness of the mind. Meditation on

loving-kindness is very beneficial as it is conducive to mental peace

and happiness.

Cultivation of the four sublime states -- loving-kindness (//Metta//),

compassion (//Karuna//), sympathetic joy (//Mudita//), and equanimity

(//Upekkha//) -- is highly commendable.

After giving careful consideration to the subject for contemplation,

he should choose the one most suited to his temperament. This being

satisfactorily settled, he makes a persistent effort to focus his mind

until he becomes so wholly absorbed and interested in it, that all

other thoughts get ipso facto excluded from the mind. The five

hindrances to progress -- namely, sense-desire, hatred, sloth and

torpor, restlessness and brooding and doubts are then temporarily

inhibited. Eventually he gains ecstatic concentration and, to his

indescribable joy, becomes enwrapt in Jhana, enjoying the calmness and

serenity of a one-pointed mind.

When one gains this perfect one-pointedness of the mind it is possible

for one to develop the five Supernormal Powers (//Abhinna//): Divine

Eye (//Dibbacakkhu//), Divine Ear (//Dibhasota//), Reminiscence of

past births (//Pubbenivasanussati-nana//). Thought Reading

(//Paracitta vijanana//) and different Psychic Powers

(//Iddhividha//). It must not be understood that those supernormal

powers are essential for Sainthood.

Though the mind is now purified there still lies dormant in him the

tendency to give vent to his passions, for by concentration, passions

are lulled to sleep temporarily. They may rise to the surface at

unexpected moments.

Both Discipline and Concentration are helpful to clear the Path of its

obstacles but it is Insight (//Vipassana Panna//) alone which enables

one to see things as they truly are, and consequently reach the

ultimate goal by completely annihilating the passions inhibited by

Samadhi. This is the third and the final stage on the Path of

Nibbana.

With his one-pointed mind which now resembles a polished mirror he

looks at the world to get a correct view of life. Wherever he turns

his eyes he sees nought but the Three Characteristics -- //Anicca //

(transiency), //Dukkha// (sorrow) and //anatta// (soul-lessness)

standing out in bold relief. He comprehends that life is constantly

changing and all conditioned things are transient. Neither in heaven

nor on earth does he find any genuine happiness, for every form of

pleasure is a prelude to pain. What is transient is therefore

painful, and where change and sorrow prevail there cannot be a

permanent immortal soul.

Whereupon, of these three characteristics, he chooses one that appeals

to him most and intently keeps on developing Insight in that

particular direction until that glorious day comes to him when he

would realize Nibbana for the first time in his life, having destroyed

the three Fetters -- self-illusion (//Sakkaya-ditthi//), doubts

(//Vvicikiccha//), indulgence in (wrongful) rites and ceremonies

(//Silabbataparamasa//).

At this stage he is called a //Sotapanna// (Stream-Winner) -- one who

has entered the stream that leads to Nibbana. As he has not

eradicated all Fetters he is reborn seven times at the most.

Summoning up fresh courage, as a result of this glimpse of Nibbana,

the Pilgrim makes rapid progress and cultivating deeper Insight

becomes a //Sakadagami// (Once Returner) by weakening two more

Fetters -- namely Sense-desire (//Kamaraga//) and ill-will

(//Patigha//). He is called a Sakadagami because he is reborn on

earth only once in case he does not attain Arhatship.

It is in the third state of Sainthood -- //Anagama// (Never-Returner)

that he completely discards the aforesaid two Fetters. Thereafter, he

neither returns to this world nor does he seek birth in the celestial

realms, since he has no more desire for sensual pleasures. After

death he is reborn in the "Pure Abodes" (//Suddhavasa//) a congenial

Brahma plane, till he attains Arhatship.

Now the saintly pilgrim, encouraged by the unprecedented success of

his endeavors, makes his final advance and, destroying the remaining

Fetters -- namely, lust after life in Realms of Forms (//Ruparaga//) and

Formless Realms (//Aruparaga//), conceit (//Mana//), restlessness

(//Uddhacca//), and ignorance (//Avijja//) -- becomes a perfect Saint:

an Arahant, a Worthy One.

Instantly he realizes that what was to be accomplished has been done,

that a heavy burden of sorrow has been relinquished, that all forms of

attachment have been totally annihilated, and that the Path to Nibbana

has been trodden. The Worthy One now stands on heights more than

celestial, far removed from the rebellious passions and defilements of

the world, realizing the unutterable bliss of Nibbana and like many an

Arahat of old, uttering that paean of joy:

"Goodwill and wisdom, mind by method trained,

The highest conduct on good morals based,

This maketh mortals pure, not rank or wealth."

As T.H. Huxley states -- "Buddhism is a system which knows no God in

the Western sense, which denies a soul to man, which counts the belief

in immortality a blunder, which refuses any efficacy to prayer and

sacrifice, which bids men to look to nothing but their own efforts for

salvation, which in its original purity knew nothing of vows of

obedience and never sought the aid of the secular arm: yet spread over

a considerable moiety of the world with marvelous rapidity -- and is

still the dominant creed of a large fraction of mankind."

* * * * * * * *

THE BUDDHIST PUBLICATION SOCIETY

The BPS is an approved charity dedicated to making known the Teaching

of the Buddha, which has a vital message for people of all creeds.

Founded in 1958, the BPS has published a wide variety of books and

booklets covering a great range of topics. Its publications include

accurate annotated translations of the Buddha's discourses, standard

reference works, as well as original contemporary expositions of

Buddhist thought and practice. These works present Buddhism as it

truly is -- a dynamic force which has influenced receptive minds for

the past 2500 years and is still as relevant today as it was when it

first arose. A full list of our publications will be sent upon request

with an enclosure of U.S. $1.00 or its equivalent to cover air mail

postage.

Write to:

The Hony. Secretary

BUDDHIST PUBLICATION SOCIETY

P.O. Box 61

54, Sangharaja Mawatha

Kandy, Sri Lanka

or

The Barre Center for Buddhist Studies

Lockwood Road

Barre, MA 01005 USA

Tel: (508) 355-2347

* * * * * * * *

DISTRIBUTION AGREEMENT

~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~

TITLE OF WORK: Buddhism in a Nutshell

FILENAME: NUTSHELL.ZIP

AUTHOR: Narada Mahathera

AUTHOR'S ADDRESS: N/A

PUBLISHER'S ADDRESS: Buddhist Publication Society

P.O. Box 61

54, Sangharaja Mawatha

Kandy, Sri Lanka

COPYRIGHT HOLDER: Buddhist Publication Society

DATE OF PUBLICATION: 1982

RIGHTS AND RESTRICTIONS: See paragraph below.

DATE OF DHARMANET DISTRIBUTION: June 1995

ORIGIN SITE: Access to Insight BBS, Pepperell MA * (508) 433-5847 (96:903/1)

The copyright holder retains all rights to this work and hereby grants

electronic distribution rights to DharmaNet International. This work may

be freely copied and redistributed electronically, provided that the file

contents (including this Agreement) are not altered in any way and that it

is distributed at no cost to the recipient. You may make printed copies of

this work for your personal use; further distribution of printed copies

requires permission from the copyright holder. If this work is used by a

teacher in a class, or is quoted in a review, the publisher shall be

notified of such use. See the title page of this work for any additional

rights and restrictions that may apply.

It is the spirit of dana, freely offered generosity, which has kept the

entire Buddhist tradition alive for more than 2,500 years. If you find

this work of value, please consider sending a donation to the author or

publisher, so that these works may continue to be made available. May your

generosity contribute to the happiness of all beings everywhere.

DharmaNet International, P.O. Box 4951, Berkeley, CA 94704-4951

[end]